Jazz
IINTRODUCTION
Jazz,typeofmusicfirstdevelopedbyAfricanAmericansaroundthefirstdecadeofthe20thcenturythathasanidentifiablehistoryanddistinctstylisticevolution.Jazzgrewupalongsidethebluesandpopularmusic,andallthesegenresoverlapinmanyways.However,criticsgenerallyagreeaboutwhetherartistsfallsquarelyinonecamporanother.
IICHARACTERISTICS
Sinceitsbeginningsjazzhasbranchedoutintosomanystylesthatnosingledescriptionfitsallofthemaccurately.Afewgeneralizationscanbemade,however,bearinginmindthatforallofthem,exceptionscanbecited.
Performersofjazzimprovisewithintheconventionsoftheirchosenstyle.Typically,theimprovisationisaccompaniedbytherepeatedchordprogressionofapopularsongoranoriginalcomposition.Instrumentalistsemulateblackvocalstyles,includingtheuseofglissandi(slidingmovementsthatsmoothlychangethepitch),nuancesofpitch(includingbluenotes,the“bent”notesthatareplayedorsungslightlylowerthanthemajorscale),andtonaleffectssuchasgrowlsandwails.
Instrivingtodevelopapersonalsound,ortonecolor(anidiosyncraticsenseofrhythmandformandanindividualstyleofexecution),performerscreaterhythmscharacterizedbyconstantsyncopation(theplacingofaccentsinunexpectedplaces,usuallyontheweakerbeat)andbyswing.Swingcanbedefinedasasensationofmomentuminwhichamelodyisalternatelyheardtogetherwith,thenslightlyatvariancewith,theregularbeat.Writtenscores,ifpresent,areoftenusedmerelyasguides,providingstructurewithinwhichimprovisationoccurs.Thetypicalinstrumentationbeginswitharhythmsectionconsistingofpiano,stringbass,drums,andoptionalguitar,towhichmaybeaddedanynumberofwindinstruments.Inbigbandsthewindinstrumentsaregroupedintothreesections:saxophones,trombones,andtrumpets.
Althoughexceptionsoccurinsomestyles,mostjazzisbasedontheprinciplethataninfinitenumberofmelodiescanfitthechordprogressionsofanysong.Themusicianimprovisesnewmelodiesthatfitthechordprogression,whichisrepeatedagainandagainaseachsoloistisfeatured,forasmanychorusesasdesired.
Althoughpieceswithmanydifferentformalpatternsareusedforjazzimprovisation,twoformalpatternsinparticulararefrequentlyfoundinsongsusedforjazz.OneistheAABAformofpopular-songchoruses,whichtypicallyconsistsof32measuresin¹meter,dividedintofour8-measuresections:sectionA,arepetitionofsectionA,sectionB(the“bridge”or“release,”oftenbeginninginanewkey),andarepetitionofsectionA.Thesecondform,withrootsdeepinAfricanAmericanfolkmusic,isthe12-barbluesform.Unlikethe32-barAABAform,bluessongshaveafairlystandardizedchordprogression.
IIIORIGINS
JazzisrootedinthemingledmusicaltraditionsofAfricanAmericans.TheseincludetraitssurvivingfromWestAfricanmusic;blackfolkmusicformsdevelopedintheAmericas;Europeanpopularandlightclassicalmusicofthe18thand19thcenturies;andlaterpopularmusicformsinfluencedbyblackmusicorproducedbyblackcomposers.AmongthesurvivingAfricantraitsarevocalstylesthatincludegreatfreedomofvocalcolor;atraditionofimprovisation;call-and-responsepatterns;andrhythmiccomplexity,bothinthesyncopationofindividualmelodiclinesandintheconflictingrhythmsplayedbydifferentmembersofanensemble.Blackfolkmusicformsincludefieldhollers,rowingchants,lullabies,andlater,spiritualsandblues(seeAfricanAmericanMusic).
Europeanmusiccontributedspecificstylesandforms:hymns,marches,waltzes,quadrilles,andotherdancemusic,aswellaslighttheatricalmusicandItalianoperaticmusic.Europeanmusicalsointroducedtheoreticalelements,inparticular,harmony,bothasavocabularyofchordsandasaconceptrelatedtomusicalform.(MuchoftheEuropeaninfluencewasabsorbedthroughprivatelessonsinEuropeanmusic,evenwhentheblackmusicianssotrainedcouldonlyfindworkinseedyentertainmentdistrictsandonMississippiriverboats.)
Black-influencedelementsofpopularmusicthatcontributedtojazzincludethebanjomusicoftheminstrelshows(derivedfromthebanjomusicofslaves),thesyncopatedrhythmicpatternsofAfrican-influencedLatinAmericanmusic(heardinsouthernU.S.cities),thebarrelhousepianostylesoftavernmusiciansintheMidwest,andthemarchesplayedbyblackbrassbandsinthelate19thcentury.Neartheendofthe19thcentury,anotherinfluentialgenreemerged.Thiswasragtime,acomposedmusicthatcombinedmanyelements,includingsyncopatedrhythms(frombanjomusicandotherblacksources)andtheharmoniccontrastsandformalpatternsofEuropeanmarches.After1910bandleaderW.C.Handytookanotherinfluentialform,theblues,andbrokeitsstrictoraltraditionbypublishinghisoriginalbluessongs.(Favoredbyjazzmusicians,Handy’ssongsfoundoneoftheirgreatestinterpretersinthe1920sinbluessingerBessieSmith,whorecordedmanyofthem.)
Themergingofthesemultipleinfluencesintojazzisdifficulttoreconstructbecauseitoccurredbeforetheexistenceofrecording,whichhasprovidedvaluabledocumentation.Ofcourse,individualmusicianshadvaryingbackgroundsandfewpeopleweredirectlyexposedtoalloftheseinfluences.Forexample,mostjazzartistswereandarecitydwellersandmighthaveonlyknownruralblackformsindirectly.
IVHISTORY
Mostearlyjazzwasplayedinsmalldancebandsorbysolopianists.Besidesragtimeandmarches,therepertoireincludedallkindsofpopulardancemusicandblues.Thebandstypicallyplayedatpicnics,weddings,parades,andfunerals.Characteristically,thebandsplayeddirgesonthewaytofuneralsandlivelymarchesonthewayback.Bluesandragtimehadarisenindependentlyjustafewyearsbeforejazzandcontinuedtoexistalongsideit,influencingthestyleandformsofjazzandprovidingimportantvehiclesforjazzimprovisation.
ANewOrleansJazz
Shortlyaftertheturnofthe20thcentury,theearliestfullydocumentedjazzstyleemergedandcenteredinNewOrleans,Louisiana.Inthisstylethecornet,trumpet,orviolincarriedthemelody,theclarinetplayedfloridcountermelodies,andthetromboneplayedrhythmicslidesandsoundedtherootnotesofchordsorsimpleharmonies.Belowthisbasictriotheguitarorbanjosoundedthechords,alongwithapiano,ifavailable;astringbass(ortubaformarchingparades)providedabassline;anddrumssuppliedtherhythmicaccompaniment.Intheory,theseroleswerethesameasinotherkindsofmusic—itwastheadditionofimprovisation,alongwithelementsofotherblackmusicsuchasbluesandragtime,thatmadejazzunique.
AmusiciannamedBuddyBoldenappearstohaveledsomebandsthatinfluencedearlyjazzmusicians,butthismusicanditssoundhavebeenlosttoposterity.Althoughsomejazzinfluencescanbeheardonafewearlyphonographrecords,notuntil1917didajazzbandrecord.Thisband,agroupofwhiteNewOrleansmusicianscalledTheOriginalDixielandJazzBand,createdasensationoverseasandintheUnitedStates.Amongtheband’smanysuccessors,twogroupsemergedintheearly1920sthatwereparticularlycelebrated:theNewOrleansRhythmKingsandtheCreoleJazzBand,thelatterofwhichwasledbycornetistKingOliver,aninfluentialstylist.TheseriesofrecordingsmadebyOliver’sbandareoftenconsideredthemostsignificantjazzrecordingsbyaNewOrleansgroup.OtherleadingNewOrleansmusiciansincludedtrumpetersBunkJohnsonandFreddieKeppard,sopranosaxophonistandclarinetistSidneyBechet,drummerWarren“Baby”Dodds,andpianistandcomposerJellyRollMorton.ThemostinfluentialjazzmusiciannurturedinNewOrleans,however,wasKingOliver’ssecondtrumpeter,LouisArmstrong.
BArmstrong’sImpact
Armstrongwasadazzlingimproviser,technically,emotionally,andintellectually.Heandhisgenerationchangedtheformatofjazzbybringingthesoloisttotheforefront,andwithinhisrecordinggroups,theHotFiveandtheHotSeven,hedemonstratedthatjazzimprovisationcouldgofarbeyondsimplyornamentingthemelody—hecreatednewmelodiesbasedonthechordsoftheinitialtune.Healsosetastandardforlaterjazzsingers,notonlybythewayhealteredthewordsandmelodiesofsongs,butalsobyimprovisingwithoutwords,likeaninstrument.Thisformofvocalimprovisationisknownasscatsinging.
CChicagoandNewYorkCity
Forjazz,the1920swasadecadeofgreatexperimentationanddiscovery.ManyNewOrleansmusicians,includingArmstrong,migratedtoChicago,Illinois,influencinglocalmusiciansandstimulatingtheevolutionoftheChicagostyle.ThisstylewasderivedfromtheNewOrleansstylebutemphasizedsoloists,oftenaddedsaxophonetotheinstrumentation,andusuallyproducedtenserrhythmsandmorecomplicatedtextures.InstrumentalistsworkinginChicagoorinfluencedbytheChicagostyleincludedtrombonistJackTeagarden,banjoistandguitaristEddieCondon,drummerGeneKrupa,andclarinetistBennyGoodman.AlsoactiveinChicagowasBixBeiderbecke,whoselyricalapproachtothecornetprovidedanalternativetoArmstrong’sbravuratrumpetstyle.ManyChicagomusicianseventuallysettledinNewYorkCity,anothermajorcenterforjazzinthe1920s.
DJazzPiano
Anothervehicleforthedevelopmentofjazzinthe1920swaspianomusic.TheHarlemsectionofNewYorkCitybecamethecenterofahighlytechnical,hard-drivingsolostyleknownasstridepiano.Themasterofthisapproachintheearly1920swasJamesP.Johnson,butitwasJohnson’sprotégéFatsWaller—atalentedvocalistandentertaineraswell—whobecamebyfarthemostpopularperformerofthisidiom.
Asecondpianostyletodevelopinthe1920swasboogie-woogie.Aformofbluesplayedonthepiano,itconsistsofashort,sharplyaccentedbasspatternplayedrepeatedlybythelefthandwhiletherighthandplaysfreely,usingavarietyofrhythms.Boogie-woogiebecameespeciallypopularinthe1930sand1940s.Leadingboogie-woogiepianistsincludedMeadeLuxLewis,AlbertAmmons,PeteJohnson,andPineTopSmith.
Themostbrilliantpianistofthe1920s,comparabletoArmstronginsheerinnovationandpresentonsomeofhismostinfluentialrecordings,wasEarl“Fatha”Hines,aChicago-nurturedvirtuosoconsideredtopossessawild,unpredictableimagination.Hisstyle,combinedwiththesmootherapproachofWaller,influencedmostpianistsofthenextgeneration—notablyTeddyWilson,whowasfeaturedwithGoodman’sbandinthe1930s,andArtTatum,whoperformedmostlyasasoloistandwasregardedwithaweforhisvirtuosityandsophisticatedharmonicsense.
ETheBig-BandEra
Alsoduringthe1920s,largegroupsofjazzmusiciansbegantoplaytogether,afterthemodelofsocietydancebands.Theseweretheso-calledbigbands,whichbecamesopopularinthe1930sandearly1940sthattheperiodwasknownastheswingera.Onemajordevelopmentintheemergenceoftheswingerawasarhythmicchangethatsmoothedthetwo-beatrhythmsofsomeearlybandsintoamoreflowingfourbeatstothebar.Musiciansalsodevelopedtheuseofshortmelodicpatterns,calledriffs,incall-and-responsepatterns.Tofacilitatethisprocedure,orchestrasweredividedintoinstrumentalsections,eachwithitsownriffs,andopportunitieswereprovidedformusicianstoplaysolos.
ThedevelopmentofthebigbandasajazzmediumwasstronglyinfluencedbytheachievementsofDukeEllingtonandFletcherHenderson.Henderson’sarranger,DonRedman,andlaterHendersonhimself,introducedwrittenjazzscoresthatwerewidelyadmiredfortheirefforttocapturethequalityofimprovisationthatcharacterizedthemusicofsmallerensembles.Toachievethisimprovisation,RedmanandHendersonwereaidedbygiftedsoloistssuchastenorsaxophonistColemanHawkinsandbyArmstrong,whoplayedinHenderson’sbandduring1924and1925.
EllingtonledabandattheCottonClubinNewYorkCityduringthelate1920s.Continuingtodirecthisorchestrauntilhisdeathin1974,hecomposedcolorfulexperimentalconcertpiecesranginginlength,fromthethree-minute“Ko-Ko”(1940)tothehourlongBlack,Brown,andBeige(1943),aswellassongssuchas“Solitude”and“SophisticatedLady.”MorecomplexthanHenderson’smusic,Ellington’smusicmadehisorchestraacohesiveensemble,withsoloswrittenfortheuniquequalitiesofspecificinstrumentsandplayers.OtherblackbandsthatwerepopularamongmusiciansandaudienceswereledbyJimmieLunceford,ChickWebb,andCabCalloway.
Adifferentstyleofbig-bandjazzwasdevelopedinKansasCity,Missouri,duringthemid-1930sandwasepitomizedbythebandofCountBasie.OriginallyassembledinKansasCity,Basie’sbandreflectedthatregion’semphasisonimprovisation,keepingthepreparedpassagesrelativelyshortandsimple.Thewindinstrumentsinhisbandexchangedensembleriffsinafree,stronglyrhythmicalinterplay,withpausestoaccommodateinstrumentalsolos.Basie’stenorsaxophonistLesterYoung,inparticular,playedwitharhythmicfreedomrarelyapparentintheimprovisationsofsoloistsfromotherbands.Young’sdelicatetoneandlong,flowingmelodies,lacedwithanoccasionalavant-gardehonkorgurgle,openedupawholenewapproach,justasArmstrong’strumpetandcornetplayinghaddoneinthe1920s.
Othertrendsettersofthelate1930sweretrumpeterRoyEldridge,electricguitaristCharlieChristian,drummerKennyClarke,andvibraphonistLionelHampton.Jazzsinginginthe1930sbecameincreasinglyflexibleandstylized.IvieAnderson,MildredBailey,EllaFitzgerald,and,aboveall,BillieHolidaywereamongtheleadingsingers.Europeansalsobecamemoreactiveinjazzduringthistime.Christian,forexample,wasinfluencedbyBelgianguitaristDjangoReinhardt,whosebrilliantrecordingswereavailableintheUnitedStates.
FInterplaywithPopularandClassicalMusic
ThepioneeringeffortsofArmstrong,Ellington,Henderson,andothersmadejazzadominantinfluenceonAmericanmusicduringthe1920sand1930s.PopularmusicianssuchasbandleaderPaulWhitemanusedsomeofthemoreobviousrhythmicandmelodicdevicesofjazz,althoughwithlessimprovisationalfreedomandskillthanweredisplayedinthemusicofthemajorjazzplayers.Attemptingtofusejazzwithlightclassicalmusic,Whiteman’sorchestraalsopremieredjazzysymphonicpiecesbyAmericancomposerssuchasGeorgeGershwin.ClosertotheauthenticjazztraditionofimprovisationandsolovirtuositywasthemusicplayedbythebandsofBennyGoodman(whousedmanyofHenderson’sarrangements),GeneKrupa,andHarryJames.
Sincethedaysofragtime,jazzcomposershadadmiredclassicalmusic.Anumberofswing-eramusicians“jazzedtheclassics”inworkssuchas“BachGoestoTown”(writtenbyAlecWilderandrecordedbyGoodman)and“EbonyRhapsody”(recordedbyEllingtonandothers).Composersofconcertmusic,inturn,paidtributetojazzinworkssuchasContrasts(1938,commissionedbyGoodman)byHungarianBélaBartókandEbonyConcerto(1945,commissionedbyWoodyHerman)byRussian-bornIgorStravinsky.Othercomposers,suchasAaronCopland,anAmerican,andDariusMilhaud,aFrenchman,acknowledgedthespiritofjazzintheirworks.
GThe1940sandthePostwarDecades
Thepreeminentlyinfluentialjazzmusicianofthe1940swasCharlieParker,whobecametheleaderofanewstyleknownusuallyasbebop,butalsoasreboporbop.LikeLesterYoung,CharlieChristian,andotheroutstandingsoloists,Parkerhadplayedwithbigbands.DuringWorldWarII(1939-1945),however,thewartimeeconomyandchangesinaudiencetasteshaddrivenmanybigbandsoutofbusiness.Theirdecline,combinedwiththeradicallynewbebopstyle,amountedtoarevolutioninthejazzworld.
Bebopwasstillbasedontheprincipleofimprovisationoverachordprogression,butthetemposwerefaster,thephraseslongerandmorecomplex,andtheemotionalrangeexpandedtoincludemoreunpleasantfeelingsthanbefore.Jazzmusiciansbecameawareofthemselvesasartistsandmadelittleefforttoselltheirwaresbyaddingvocals,dancing,andcomedyastheirpredecessorshad.
AtthecenterofthefermentstoodParker,whocouldplayanythingonthesaxophone,inanytempoandinanykey.Hecreatedbeautifulmelodiesthatwererelatedinadvancedwaystotheunderlyingchords,andhismusicpossessedendlessrhythmicvariety.Parker’sfrequentcollaboratorsweretrumpeterDizzyGillespie,knownforhisformidablespeedandrangeanddaringharmonicsense,andpianistEarl“Bud”PowellanddrummerMaxRoach,bothleadersintheirownright.Alsohighlyregardedwerepianist-composerTheloniousMonkandtrumpeterFatsNavarro.JazzsingerSarahVaughanwasassociatedearlyinhercareerwithbebopmusicians,particularlyGillespieandParker.
Thelate1940sbroughtforthanexplosionofexperimentationinjazz.ModernizedbigbandsledbyGillespieandStanKentonflourishedalongsidesmallgroupswithinnovativemusicianssuchaspianistLennieTristano.Mostofthesegroupsdrewideasfrom20th-centurypiecesbymasterssuchasBartókandStravinsky.
Themostinfluentialofthemidcenturyexperimentswithclassicallyinfluencedjazzweretherecordingsmadein1949and1950byanunusualnonetledbyCharlieParker’sprotégé,ayoungtrumpeternamedMilesDavis.Thewrittenarrangements,byDavisandothers,weresoftintonebuthighlycomplex.Manygroupsadoptedthis“cool”style,especiallyontheWestCoast,andsoitbecameknownasWestCoastjazz.RefinedbyplayerssuchastenorsaxophonistsZootSimsandStanGetzandbaritonesaxophonistGerryMulligan,WestCoastjazzflourishedthroughoutthe1950s.Alsointhe1950spianistDaveBrubeck(astudentofMilhaud’s),withaltosaxophonistPaulDesmond,achievedpopularitywithhisblendofclassicalmusicandjazz.
Mostmusicians,however,particularlyontheEastCoast,continuedtoexpandonthehotter,moredrivingbeboptradition.Majorexponentsofthehard-boporEastCoaststyleincludedtrumpeterCliffordBrown,drummerArtBlakey,andtenorsaxophonistSonnyRollins,whoseuniqueapproachmadehimoneofthemajortalentsofhisgeneration.AnotherderivativeoftheParkerstylewassouljazz,playedbypianistHoraceSilver,altosaxophonistCannonballAdderley,andhisbrother,cornetistNatAdderley.
HTheLate1950s,1960s,and1970s
Severalnewapproachescharacterizedjazzinthethirdquarterofthecentury.Theyearsaround1960rankedwiththelate1920sandthelate1940sasoneofthemostfertileperiodsinthehistoryofjazz.
H1ModalJazz
In1955MilesDavisorganizedaquintetthatfeaturedtenorsaxophonistJohnColtrane,whosecomplexapproachproducedastrikingcontrasttoDavis’srich-toned,unhurried,expressivemelodiclines.Coltranepouredoutstreamsofnoteswithvelocityandpassion,exploringeverymelodicidea,nomatterhowexotic;nevertheless,heplayedslowballadswithpoiseandserenity.Inhissolosherevealedanexceptionalsenseofformandpacing.In1959ColtraneappearedonalandmarkMilesDavisalbum,KindofBlue.AlongwithpianistBillEvans,Davisdevisedforthisalbumasetofpiecesthatremaininonekey,chord,andmodeforaslongas16me
